Downward Counterfactual Thinking 1 Running Head: DOWNWARD COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING Looking on the Bright Side: Downward Counterfactual Thinking in Response to Stressful Life Events

Although the literature has identified both a self-enhancement and a self-improvement function of counterfactual thinking, most evidence points to situations in which the self-improvement function predominates. The current research spotlights a set of factors that increase the role of self-enhancement in counterfactual thinking. Threatening experiences such as chronic illness (Study 1) and the terrorist attacks of 9-11 (Study 2) were a ssociated with more downward than upward counterfactuals. In Study 3, among those more motivated to self-enhance, a manipulation of event severity led to the generation of more downward than upward counterfactuals. Cultural background (Studies 3, 4, & 5), manipulated motives (Study 4), and the opportunity for self-affirmation (Study 5) also were related to the self-enhancing function of counterfactual thoughts. Downward Counterfactual Thinking 3 We have, without any doubt, the best Police Department, the best Fire Department, the best police officers, the best fire officers, the best emergency workers of any place in the whole world. And, although today's tragedy is going to be enormous, and there's no way to minimize it, if it weren't for them, this tragedy would be far worse…without our Police Department, our Fire Department, our EMS, and the kinds of people we have, many of whom lost their lives, there would be double or triple the number of casualties. People often respond to events in their lives by considering alternative scenarios of " what might have been, " and Mayor Giuliani's statement illustrates this type of thinking with respect to a particularly traumatic event. The process of generating such thoughts is called counterfactual thinking (e.g., Kahneman & Miller, 1986) because it involves the mental simulation of events that are counter to what actually transpired. The generation of alternative scenarios that are better than what actually happened is labeled " upward counterfactual thinking, " whereas the generation of alternative scenarios that are worse than what actually occurred is labeled " downward counterfactual thinking " McMullen, 1993; see Roese & Olson, 1995a for a review). Giuliani was understandably using downward counterfactuals in an attempt to alleviate the feelings of threat and despair that had been thrust upon his fellow New Yorkers. Although little research has examined the conditions under which counterfactuals are used to make the self feel better, poignant examples such as this suggest that simulating possible worse worlds may be one way in which people cope. One widely supported view of counterfactual thinking is that …